桑德罗·波提切利（Sandro Botticelli；Alessandro Filipepi，1445—1510）是15世纪末佛罗伦萨的著名画家，欧洲文艺复兴早期佛罗伦萨画派的最后一位画家。他画的圣母子像非常出名。波提切利又是意大利肖像画的先驱者。
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波提切利的出生弗洛伦斯在一所房子通过Nuova,Borg 'Ognissanti,马里亚诺·迪万尼d 'Amedeo Filipepi。瓦萨里报道,波提切利最初是作为一种训练戈德史密斯他的弟弟安东尼奥。 很少有波提切利的生活细节,但众所周知,他成为学徒当他十四岁时,这将表明他接受完整的教育比其他文艺复兴时期的艺术家。在1462年他的学徒联邦铁路局菲利普·里皮; 他的很多早期作品已被归因于老主人,和归因仍然是不确定的。影响也是巨大的马萨乔的画,从里皮,波提切利学到了更亲密和详细的方式。最近发现,在这段时间里,波提切利可以前往匈牙利,参与创作的壁画Esztergom菲利普·里皮的,要求在车间Janos Vitez,然后大主教匈牙利。
到1470年,波提切利自己的车间。即使在这个早期,他的工作特点是图的概念,好像在浅浮雕,用清晰的轮廓,并减少强烈的光影对比表明完全模仿形式。
白桃花心木(c。1482),佛罗伦萨文艺复兴的春天更新图标,也在夏季宫殿Pierfrancesco德美第奇,作为一个同伴维纳斯的诞生和帕拉斯和半人马。左至右:汞,三女神,金星,植物区系,版图,,泽费罗斯
的来拜》圣玛丽亚中篇小说(c。1475 - 76年,现在在乌菲兹),包含的画像关于柯西莫•德•美第奇和他儿子皮耶罗和乔凡尼和他的孙子洛伦佐和朱利亚诺。现场的质量被瓦萨里波提切利的一个顶峰。在1481年,教皇西克斯图斯四世召集波提切利和其他杰出的佛罗伦萨和翁布里亚语艺术家壁画的墙壁西斯廷教堂。肖像学的程序教皇的霸主地位。桑德罗的贡献包括基督的诱惑,惩罚叛军和摩西的审判。他回到佛罗伦萨,”的诡辩的性情,他写了一篇评论部分但丁并说明了地狱他打印,花费太多的时间,和这下班弃权导致严重的疾病在他的生活。“因此瓦萨里第一次印刷但丁(1481)与波提切利的装饰品,他无法想象的新艺术印刷可能会占据一个艺术家。
麦当娜的书(c.1480-3)
的杰作白桃花心木(c。1482)维纳斯的诞生(c . 1485)都被瓦萨里的别墅Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de的美第奇在16世纪中叶的城堡,直到最近,假设这两个作品画专为别墅。最近的奖学金表明否则:白桃花心木是洛伦佐别墅在佛罗伦萨,维纳斯的诞生是委托别人不同的网站。到1499年,它们被安装在加莱。
这些作品的影响哥特现实主义是受到古董的波提切利的研究。但如果绘画意味着可能被理解,受试者自己保持迷人的歧义。这些画的复杂含义继续得到学者的广泛关注,主要专注于诗歌和哲学人文主义者的艺术家的同时代的人。作品不说明特定的文本,而是每个依赖于几个文本的意义。它们的美,表现为瓦萨里举例“恩典”约翰拉斯金具有线性节奏,毫无疑问。图片特征波提切利的线性风格强调柔软的持续不断的轮廓和柔和的颜色。
在1480年代中期,波提切利在壁画主要周期佩鲁基诺,多梅尼科是基尔兰达约和菲里皮,因为洛伦佐壮丽的附近的别墅沃尔泰拉;此外他画了许多壁画在佛罗伦萨教堂。1491年,他曾在一个委员会来决定一个门面佛罗伦斯大教堂.
神秘的诞生(c.1500-01)
在以后生活中,波提切利的追随者的说教的修士萨沃纳罗拉Girolamo鼓吹在佛罗伦萨从1490年直到他谁执行1498年,尽管萨沃纳罗拉的严重程度的影响仍不确定。
“就像佛罗伦萨,萨沃纳罗拉的波提切利的影响下和他的艺术将从装饰到极其虔诚的-神秘的诞生(1500 - 01 c。)(例如)熊这种变化的迹象”
”这个故事,他烧自己的画作在臭名昭著的“异教徒的主题虚荣的篝火“不告诉瓦萨里不过断言的萨沃纳罗拉的教派”他非常热心的党派,他是他绘画,从而诱导沙漠,没有收入,生活陷入了很大的困境。出于这个原因,党坚持他的依恋,成为Piagnone他放弃了他的工作。”
波提切利的传记作者恩斯特Steinmann寻找通过他的麦当娜艺术家的心理发展。在“深化的洞察力和表达呈现的玛丽的地貌”,Steinmann分辨萨沃纳罗拉的证据对波提切利的影响。(在Steinmann的工作日期的麦当娜被放置在晚些时候艺术家的生活)。Steinmann不同意瓦萨里的说法,波提切利没有萨沃纳罗拉的影响后,相信精神和情感上的处女,而画的桑德罗之后直接从多米尼加和尚的教诲。
麦当娜和孩子圣施洗约翰c。1470 - 1475年,罗浮宫
波提切利在1502年已经很少采用。1504年,他是一个委员会的成员任命决定的地方米开朗基罗的大卫将放置。他后期的作品,特别是在一系列的生活圣Zenobius目睹了规模减少,意味深长地扭曲的人物,non-naturalistic色彩的运用让人想起的工作福拉。安吉利柯近一个世纪前。在他死后,他的声誉是超越更长和更彻底的比任何其他欧洲主要的艺术家。他的画作仍在教堂和别墅[9]他们经创建了,他的壁画西斯廷教堂米开朗基罗的抢去了风头。
英语收集器年轻的威廉Ottley然而带来了波提切利的神秘的诞生到伦敦和他1799年在意大利购买。Ottley死后,它的下一个买家,威廉·富勒梅特兰斯坦斯特德机场,允许它在一个主要的艺术展览在展出曼彻斯特在1857年,艺术珍品展览, 在许多其他艺术作品是被超过一百万人。
第一个19世纪艺术史学家满意地看着波提切利的西斯廷壁画Alexis-Francois里约热内卢;安娜·布劳内尔詹姆逊和查尔斯东湖牌提醒波提切利,是通过他的手开始出现在德国的集合,和拉菲尔前派的兄弟会融入他的工作在自己的元素。 沃尔特·佩特创造了一个文学波提切利的照片,当时的审美活动。在艺术家于1893年出版的第一本专著《;然后,在1900年和1920年之间更多的书是写在波提切利比在任何其他画家。
维纳斯的诞生,1486年。乌菲兹,弗洛伦斯
波提切利从未结婚,表示强烈不喜欢婚姻的想法,可能他说给他的噩梦。
流行的观点是,他遭受的暗恋Simonetta韦斯普奇一个结了婚的贵妇人。根据流行的信念,她担任模型维纳斯的诞生反复出现在他的画,尽管她年前去世,1476年。波提切利问他,当他死后,葬在她的脚Ognissanti教会在佛罗伦萨。他的愿望是当他死一些34年后,在1510年。
一些现代历史学家也检查了他的性取向的其他方面。在1938年,雅克Mesnil发现的总结在佛罗伦萨档案为11月16日,1502年,阅读简单的“波提切利保持男孩”,指责鸡奸。画家将已58,指控最终被撤销。Mesnil将它作为一个惯例的游击队和对手的谤萨沃纳罗拉虐待对方。的意见仍然存在分歧是否这是同性恋的证据。很多人坚定地支持Mesnil,但也有人警告不要草率的解雇。虽然推测他的画作的主题,不过Mesnil认为“女人不是他的爱的唯一对象”。
Botticelli was born in the city of Florence in a house in the Via Nuova, Borg'Ognissanti, to Mariano di Vanni d'Amedeo Filipepi. Vasari reported that Botticelli was initially trained as a goldsmith by his brother Antonio. There are very few details of Botticelli's life, but it is known that he became an apprentice when he was about fourteen years old, which would indicate that he received a fuller education than other Renaissance artists. By 1462 he was apprenticed to Fra Filippo Lippi; many of his early works have been attributed to the elder master, and attributions continue to be uncertain. Influenced also by the monumentality of Masaccio's painting, it was from Lippi that Botticelli learned a more intimate and detailed manner. As recently discovered, during this time, Botticelli could have traveled to Hungary, participating in the creation of a fresco in Esztergom, ordered in the workshop of Filippo Lippi by János Vitéz, then archbishop of Hungary.
By 1470, Botticelli had his own workshop. Even at this early date, his work was characterized by a conception of the figure as if seen in low relief, drawn with clear contours, and minimizing strong contrasts of light and shadow which would indicate fully modelled forms.
The Adoration of the Magi for Santa Maria Novella (c. 1475–76, now at the Uffizi), contains the portraits of Cosimo de Medici, his sons Piero and Giovanni, and his grandsons Lorenzo and Giuliano. The quality of the scene was hailed by Vasari as one of Botticelli's pinnacles. In 1481, Pope Sixtus IV summoned Botticelli and other prominent Florentine and Umbrian artists to fresco the walls of the Sistine Chapel. The iconological program was the supremacy of the Papacy. Sandro's contribution included the Temptations of Christ, the Punishment of the Rebels and Trial of Moses. He returned to Florence, and "being of a sophistical turn of mind, he there wrote a commentary on a portion of Dante and illustrated the Infernowhich he printed, spending much time over it, and this abstention from work led to serious disorders in his living." Thus Vasari characterized the first printedDante (1481) with Botticelli's decorations; he could not imagine that the new art of printing might occupy an artist.
The masterpieces Primavera (c. 1482) and The Birth of Venus (c. 1485) were both seen by Vasari at the villa of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici at Castello in the mid-16th century, and until recently, it was assumed that both works were painted specifically for the villa. Recent scholarship suggests otherwise: the Primavera was painted for Lorenzo's townhouse in Florence, and The Birth of Venus was commissioned by someone else for a different site. By 1499, both had been installed at Castello.
In these works, the influence of Gothic realism is tempered by Botticelli's study of the antique. But if the painterly means may be understood, the subjects themselves remain fascinating for their ambiguity. The complex meanings of these paintings continue to receive widespread scholarly attention, mainly focusing on the poetry and philosophy of humanists who were the artist's contemporaries. The works do not illustrate particular texts; rather, each relies upon several texts for its significance. Of their beauty, characterized by Vasari as exemplifying "grace" and byJohn Ruskin as possessing linear rhythm, there can be no doubt. The pictures features Botticelli's linear style emphasized by the soft continual contours and pastel colors.
In the mid-1480s, Botticelli worked on a major fresco cycle with Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Filippino Lippi, for Lorenzo the Magnificent's villa near Volterra; in addition he painted many frescoes in Florentine churches. In 1491 he served on a committee to decide upon a façade for the Cathedral of Florence.
In later life, Botticelli was one of the followers of the deeply moralistic friar Girolamo Savonarola who preached in Florence from 1490 until his execution in 1498, though the full extent of Savonarola's influence remains uncertain.
"Like much of Florence, Botticelli had come under the sway of Savonarola and his art had transformed from the decorative to the deeply devout – The Mystical Nativity (c. 1500–01) [for example] bears all the signs of this change"
"The story that he burnt his own paintings on pagan themes in the notorious "Bonfire of the Vanities" is not told by Vasari, who nevertheless asserts that of the sect of Savonarola "he was so ardent a partisan that he was thereby induced to desert his painting, and, having no income to live on, fell into very great distress. For this reason, persisting in his attachment to that party, and becoming a Piagnonehe abandoned his work."
Botticelli biographer Ernst Steinmann searched for the artist's psychological development through his Madonnas. In the "deepening of insight and expression in the rendering of Mary's physiognomy", Steinmann discerned proof of Savonarola's influence over Botticelli. (In Steinmann's work the dates of a number of Madonnas were placed at a later point in the artist's life). Steinmann disagreed with Vasari's assertion that Botticelli produced nothing after coming under the influence of Savonarola, believing rather that the spiritual and emotional Virgins painted by Sandro followed directly from the teachings of the Dominican monk.
Botticelli was already little employed in 1502. In 1504 he was a member of the committee appointed to decide where Michelangelo's David would be placed. His later work, especially as seen in a series on the life of St. Zenobius, witnessed a diminution of scale, expressively distorted figures, and a non-naturalistic use of colour reminiscent of the work of Fra Angelico nearly a century earlier. After his death, his reputation was eclipsed longer and more thoroughly than that of any other major European artist. His paintings remained in the churches and villasfor which they had been created, his frescoes in the Sistine Chapel upstaged by Michelangelo's.
The English collector William Young Ottley had however brought Botticelli's The Mystical Nativity to London with him in 1799 after buying it in Italy. After Ottley's death, its next purchaser, William Fuller Maitland of Stansted, allowed it to be exhibited in a major art exhibition held in Manchester in 1857, the Art Treasures Exhibition,[10] where among many other art works it was viewed by more than a million people.
The first nineteenth-century art historian to have looked with satisfaction at Botticelli's Sistine frescoes was Alexis-François Rio; Anna Brownell Jameson andCharles Eastlake were alerted to Botticelli, works by his hand began to appear in German collections, and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood incorporated elements of his work into their own.[11] Walter Patercreated a literary picture of Botticelli, who was then taken up by the Aesthetic movement. The first monograph on the artist was published in 1893; then, between 1900 and 1920 more books were written on Botticelli than on any other painter.[12]
Botticelli never wed, and expressed a strong disliking to the idea of marriage, a prospect he claimed gave him nightmares.
The popular view is that he suffered from an unrequited love forSimonetta Vespucci, a married noblewoman. According to popular belief, she had served as the model for The Birth of Venus and recurs throughout his paintings, despite the fact that she had died years earlier, in 1476. Botticelli asked that when he died, he be buried at her feet in the Church of Ognissanti in Florence. His wish was carried out when he died some 34 years later, in 1510.
Some modern historians have also examined other aspects of his sexuality. In 1938, Jacques Mesnil discovered a summary of a charge in the Florentine Archives for November 16, 1502, which read simply "Botticelli keeps a boy", under an accusation of sodomy. The painter would then have been fifty-eight; the charges were eventually dropped. Mesnil dismissed it as a customary slander by which partisans and adversaries of Savonarola abused each other. Opinion remains divided on whether this is evidence of homosexuality.[14] Many have firmly backed Mesnil,[15]but others have cautioned against hasty dismissal of the charge.[16] Yet while speculating on the subject of his paintings, Mesnil nevertheless concluded "woman was not the only object of his love".
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